Westerntern lighting convention.
Lighting a subject from the top-front-left because westerners scan images from left to right following the direction of which westerners read. Hebrew and Arabic artists reverse this convention due to their own natural reading culture. Oriental artists, as they are accustom to reading text in a vertical manner, give no meaning or importance to incorporate this convention, but enhance vertical lighting of their subjects and depict a virtual absence of side lighting in their art.
Tonal contrast principle
One of the many tools used to separate a subject from its background. Simultaneous contrast means subjects should appear to lighten by their contrast with a dark background. Opposing this, subjects will appear to darken by their contrast when sat against a lighter background. Exagerating the corners, makes a more convincing illustration, as well as adding flicks of white within the shadows and dark tones (flying whites) to enhance the depth of the dark spaces.
Exotopic and Endotopic tones.
rather that using a line to separate the key features from their immediate background, tonal contrasts are utilized to differentiate the subject from its background. These tonal contrasts gives pictorial unity, allowing the subjects to sit correctly in space, in harmonious contrast to the background.
Phrasing line, tone and texture to portray weight
weighting a line, involves a transition in a line from a pale tone where the line is further away from the ground to a dark tone where the line is closest to the ground. In short, the principle is all about the artist varying the degree of light and shade in a line—usually the outcome of changing the pressure on the drawing instrument—to connote the sensation of gravity.
Adjusting the thickness, depth and rendering styles of the line, tone and textural elements of the drawing to depict movement, heaviness and position in space.
To achieve this, the artist needs to emerse themselves into the situation of the subject, being in the situation will aid in creating the correct perspective and achieve the comfortable position in space. If an object is moving towards us, the edges would be blurred and the centre enhanced, when it is moving away, the edges are enhanced. applying the rules of perspective
Examples – clouds are made to look weighted using noetic space and tonal contrast principle.
Trees and their base are depicted to be glued to the ground by adding 3 accents to the trunk, this anchors the tree to the floor. A solid line would cut the subject rather than add weight. To achieve this with transparent objects, you would use occlusion shadows, the final accent of tone where the shadow meets the subject, and the lightest part will be the opposite side to where the light initially hit.
Ingres principle
This isn’t particularly a technical term, however is discusses the phrasing of line in relation to a curve and transitional changes throughout the form. If it is a narrow tight curve (eg, bone or hard edge) the line will be more pronounced to depict the angle of the contour. When the edge is soft (eg, large curve, thigh, ball) the line is applied delicately to portray the smooth elements of the subject. It is common sense and should be done haptically and non intentional. Varies according to the shapes of the subject. phrasing of a subject’s silhouette edge to replicate variations in the subject’s surface contours.
Phrasing of line without a beginning of end (lanceolate leaf shape)
Tapering the etching direction of lines to portray objects receding or advancing within the artwork.
the swelling (i.e. bulging outwards) of each line from a faint beginning and back to an equally faint ending like a lanceolate leaf shape (i.e. a shape that is pointed at each end)
The point of maximum swelling in the lines is assigned to where the weight is. this subtle phrasing is the “secret” to using the principle of weight in a line meaningfully.
Reflected light
A light ray that bounces off a reflective surface at the exact angle at which it contacted the surface. Use of reflected light gives forms to shadows. Without this light the dark areas would appear flat. Reflected light is a combination of the local color of the object sending the light, the object receiving the light and the quality and color of the source light and ambient light in the scene.
Noetic space
The term noetic describes our intellectual ability to rationalise. Noetic space in drawing is used to portray special separation between subject and background. Noetic space is the light area on the shadowed side of a subject. The use of noetic space gives an illusion of depth, along with the darkening the background of the light side of the subject, the sucject will take on a more realistic 3d appearance and sit harmoniously in space, connecting with the ground, background and surrounding setting.
Tonal perspective
Usually the forground is dark and the background is lighter to give spatial depth. Subjects sit in space harmoniously, because of the energy and emphasis on the line and tone on the forground, and subtle appearance of background marks. This encoporates the opacity and transparency perspective, the forground object is opaque. An opaque object is neither transparent (allowing all light to pass through) nor translucent (allowing some light to pass through). With regard to other artists’ approaches to representing spatial depth, the most common way is to conceive of space as having three critical and identifiable zones: foreground middle and, far-distance This approach makes the representation of space manageable. the sense that the spatial break-up into three zones presents the artist with only three critical stages of change in the transition from sharp focus in the foreground to atmospheric blurriness in the far-distance.
Negative and positive lines and textures
Refers to the tone contrast from mark to background. (black etching on white surface vs white lines on a black surface), transitions from one surface tone to another.
White drawing (negative object) on a black background, usually makes the space more ambiguous than if we were to draw black on white paper.
It was used a lot on scraper board prints, where artists would use a mimetic technique to replicate the textural elements of their subjects (eg clothing materials) by altering rendering styles to portray the particular surface.
Tonal transition from forground to distance
Usually dark in the foreground and light in the background.
To achieve spatial depth in the composition, there is a quick transition from light to dark zones so that a quick transition from dark to light tones can then be employed. To achieve the elements as a unified vision, the same or very similar degree of focal resolusion and tone should be treated to each layer of the art work. (similar tones for the back ground and then similar tones for all objects In the forground
Transition of tone and mark
The subtle mark direction change within a tonal transition. Manouvering marks and the direction of brush strokes to achieve the desired look. Shadows are horizontal, light is vertical.
Return stroke
Subtle effortless marks, creates an almost zig zag pattern. Was utilized in print making to give life to mechanical hatching, over time in the replicated prints, the returning marks wore off and a hook like mark was realized. Hook stroke was recognized as being just as effective to create life and weight to etching process.
Stippling
Dotted manner, the stippling technique enables an artist to achieve the most delicate graduations of tone and reproduce the subtle value of deisn to a subject.
Line and dot
This is process where a thicker line, gradually is phrased to a thin delicate mark, as the mark enters the lite part of the subject, it breaks down in to small dots which eventually separate further and disappear into a white lite area.
The dotted lozenge
a subtle device that adds texture, tapering towards the light creates luminosity in a more meticulous manner than just mark making.
where dots are placed in the middle of lozenge shaped spaces created by cross-hatching to further refine tonal shading.
Crosshatching
Layering of lines both vertical and horizontal on top of each other to portray depth and 3d effect in an art work. This is a fairly mechanical technique with the use of straight lines, artists then extended and progressed to marks such as the hook stroke to achieve a care fee haptic manner with their lines.
Rain drops
Engravers used only parallel lines to render tone, their stylus strokes were carved like pen on paper, this resulted in the marks aligning like falling rain. Straight up and down marks used as a rendering technique.
Striations
Lines and marks meshed together but arranged into rows. Use of this approach can give the appearance of complication to a subject but it has a shortfall in that the viewers may perceive the effect of striations to be a portrayal of a surface texture.
Digital tonal transitions
Achieveing rendering styles and mark making techniques using a digital device.
Tonal transitions in shadows
Penumbre – two sided shadows, achieveing illuminosity. Use a crisp line on the shadow and fade as the line distances from the subject.
Antumbre – illuminating the centre of a shadow.
Umbre – the shadow itself
Tone of the subject in one lighting condition changes in relationship to its surroundings at the same rate. This is called the lighting ratio.
Gradual softening of the outside edge of the shadow as they recede from the subject casting them.
Principles of convex and concave forms
Concaved surfaces are a shape that replicate the curve of a spoon, the outer edge is lighter and the tones become darker towards the centre. A concave reflective surface show imagery upside down.
Convex surfaces are shaped similar to the back of a spoon, warmer colours are used within in the centre to create the illusion of bulging. Darker tones on the outside and lighter in the middle also aids in the illusion of the form advancing from the page.
Reflections within a spherical form involves both convex and concave effects, light passes through the sphere and the light bounces on the shadow side (used when drawing grapes and eyes)
Advancing and receding shapes ; the analytical and intuitive eye
light passes through the sphere and the light bounces on the shadow side (used when drawing grapes and eyes), because the eye is spherical and translucent, the light reflects on the shadowed side
the left direction is the analytical side, to portray a cunning character you would play on this direction. And the right direction portrays a nice persons intuitive eye. A square highlight should be placed on the eye the artist wants the viewer to focus on
Colour perspective – principle of advancing and receding colour
This is in the context of what is stressful to the eye.
Tonal similarities = harmonious
Light and dark contrast = discord
Simple colour theory suggests Colours that are warm (i.e. colours like orange, red and all the browns that have associations with heat) should feature towards the foreground and the colours that are cool (i.e. colours like green and blue and all the aqua colours that have association with cold) should feature towards the background.” This will achieve pictorial depth within in image. Warm colours imply an object is advancing and cool colours help a subject recede into the background.
To make each colour looks like it belongs and contributes in a cohesive way to a unified overall image, artists often introduce an element of cool colour to a warm foreground and an element of warm colour to a cool background. This colour interaction—technically termed “simultaneous contrast”—at the line of abutment is a marvellous way to induce the viewer’s eye to optically see more colours in an image than are really there.
Also an important principle in making colours “sing” or “talk to each other” is the choice of colour placed in between.
Yellows and purples can both advance and recede depending on where they are placed against their surroundings. Eg a cool lemon yellow will tend to advance when juxtaposed against a red.
Chromatic perspective
Chroma is the amount of grey that is saturating a direct hue or colour from the spectrum.
Hue = a colour straight from the spectrum. Fully saturated lively colour, to add grey we are diluting the intensity adding grey to dull the hue.
Regarding chromatic perspective as a principle to achieve spatial depth.
Saturated colour are those of full strength, these advance and those that are chromatically degenerated recede.
Illuminous in the foreground and degenerated as it recedes to the background.
Regarding chromatic perspective as a principle to achieve spatial depth.
Colour bias in rendering light and shadow
by following the western convention of lighting from the top front left, the colour transition usually flows from warm of the left to cool on the right.
Simple terms… warm the colours in the lite areas and cool them in the shadowed areas.
Principle of colour in shadow
Within shadows, you need to replicate the warm vs cool tones within the figure, within the figure itself, warm colours can also be applies to the lite part of the figure, following the western lighting convention and cooled colours immersed within the shadowed part of the form.
The hue within the shadow should be the complimentary colour to the light that is casting on the form or object.
Opacity perspective
Opaque, unable to see through, vs transparent.
The process of merging from a vibrant opaque medium to a translucent texture to create special depth within an image.
A change in medium e.g oiled charcoal to willowed charcoal creates a natural contrast in opacity perspective.
Vignette – plays a part in opacity perspective, a process by which there is a loss in clarity towards the corners and sides of the image.
Principle of convex and concave lines
Holy = concave lines and forms are seen as being recessed into the ground (sunk into the ground)
Clover= convex forms and lines. The convex shapes of the figure makes it look like its in front of the ground.
Eg - When representing shallow water, artists use outward bulging curves like those of a clover leaf to depict the water’s edge. When representing deep water, they use inward arcing curves like those of a holly leaf to depict the water’s edge.
Principle of connoting open and closed space
If the start or finish of a mark if flicked back towards the stem of the line a closed space Is created.
Evident in calligraphy – a good piece should feel contained, the lines flick and continue in the direction to lead the eye to the next line.
Lines should follow the natural movement of the brush, unintentional marks created with energy.
A strong use of connecting marks without having to join the lines. Lines should not all point in uniform, lack of energy and connecting lines.
Haptic approach to drawing
Haptic approach is almost feeling a form as if you were blind. Conveys a sense onto the paper, scratching into space, feeling the form not drawing from proportions but from perspective.
Often drawing without looking at the page depicts a a great haptic approach, it creates a connection between the eyes and the hand.
Principle of overlapping forms
Using an example of drawing a back, not just drawing a flat back to achieve convex lines. Focusing on the analytical curves of the back, and adding endotopic tone to the inside of the line on the dark side to achieve shadow.
Posterisation
Blocking in – is the term used for the approach of posterisation. Process of reducing the image down to the fundamentals. It is important to keep an element of visual democracy within the picture, gestalt – where nothing overpowers, no part if more important than the whole picture.
Showing the simplistic tones on a figure. Accentuating the difference between the tones and the point of intersection is where you play up the tonal contrasts and keep the rest of the figure simple. A contrasting two tone effect. The background tones can also be enhanced to communicate with the subjects. Including flying whites will heighten the dark shadows.
Exotopic and endotopic tones
On the lite side, the exotopic tone is present on the background and meets the line of the figure. The shadowed side of the figure, had a light and limited background. The endotopic tone is present on the inside of the figure, paired with flying whites it gives the illusion of shadow casted onto the figure. These tonal contrasts allow the subject to sit correctly in space in harmonious contrast to the background.
Ingres principle
the Ingres principle, concerns the phrasing of a subject’s silhouette edge to replicate variations in the subject’s surface contours. For example, if an artist were to apply this principle to portraying a figure’s arm then the sharply angled contours of an elbow may lead the artist to treat the silhouette edge of the elbow with a strong line by comparison with a much softer line where the contours of the arm change to the rounded muscles of the upper arm.
Phrasing the lines so they appear hard and sharp of the more angular edges and thin and flowing on the softer lines of a subject.
Principle of weighting a line
Thickening the phrasing of the line to depict where the weight is within the composition. Following the weighting principle, and western lighting convention, lighting from the top front left, the simple lineal depiction of the character, should have bold lineal phrasing on the bottom sides, to not only depict weight but show the shadowed side of the figure.
Simplification to essential lines
Using a minimal number of lines to convey a subjects stance on paper. Double lines can be added to depict the weighting effect on the subject when using the simplification of essential lines.
Parallel scribble gesture
Haptic style of composing the subject onto paper, it is finding an angle and then establishing where the same angle is repeated within the composition. When introducing an angle in the form, there is always the same tension echoed else where. Haptically feeling the subject means avoiding mechanical lines, darkening lines, areas and angles demonstrates the weight and tension in the composition as well as showing the replicated angles. Composition needs to be clear and easy to understand veen with the simplicity of the drawing.
Proportions
Proportions are generalised. Each person is different.
7-8 heads tall.
Eye is half way
Nose is 1/3 down from the eyes and 2/3 up from the chin
There is space for an eye in between the eyes and should fit a half eye either side.
Centre of the pupils should level with the edges of the mouth.
Ear to eye to mouth should usually be an equal atrial triangle.
Avoid using lines that lead to or from corners
Leads the viewer out of the composition, a good picture needs to encourage the viewer into the centre of the picture. It interrupts the flow, if lines need to be lead into the corner, an object needs to be placed in its way to interrupt the flow.
Avoid employing lines that cut off corners
Cutting off the corner can be addressed if the form that is cropping the corner has a element of transparency to it and we can see a form or lineal composition evident through it.
Avoid cropping a subject on a point of articulation
Point of articulation are joints, for example cutting a subject off at the elbow. It needs to be cut off at the golden section of a subject.
Avoid using lines that create tangents
This is where the focus subject of the image is close to the edge but doesn’t connect to the edge of the composition. By lightly connecting or lightly touching the edge of the composition , even by applying a vignette effect, the picture becomes more appealing to the viewer.
Avoid employing uninterrupted lines
A division does not integrate fluently within the composition, splits the artwork in half and divides it into two separate pieces.
A separation can work well if when referencing between stillness and movement.
Avoid creating ‘ floating ‘ compositions
There is a lack of a relationship between the frame and the subject, the object does not sit harmoniously in space and the peripheral edge is now irrelevant.
Avoid employing multiple centres of interest
The eye is drawn to multiple sections, the composition needs to have a hierarchy, with the eye unsure where to look, there is no balance within the pictorial democracy. All elements are struggling to become the dominant form.
Avoid placing verticals on the left and horizontals on the right
Similar to how we read the western lighting convention, we read into the composition in from the left. We need horizontals on the left to guide the eye into the picture and add horizontals further into the piece to stop the flow. To introduce vertical lines on the left side, obstructs the composition and restricts the flow of the composition because of our natural western reading culture.
Avoid distributing features evenly
When the subjects are evenly distributed and centered, its makes the composition very uninteresting. By introducing a phrased line into the picture, it can be separated and space is conveyed in the configuration.
Avoid creating an unbalanced composition
Top, bottom or one sided heaviness to the art work. For example when a subject is looking out of the composition, a mirrored suspicion of what the subject is looking at would balance the work.
Avoid employing an even number of subjects
There needs to be an uneven number of subjects for there to be a hierarchy within the composition to achieve an emotion. You cannot achieve neither a gestalt effect or visual democracy with an even number of forms.
Classical u shaped composition
Historically this was a male dominated vision as there were lack of recognised female artists. Composition demonstrates lack of peripheral vision, focus is in front of the artist, usually looking through a gap framed by the u shaped foreground. Takes into account culture and perception of the artist, with the subjects deemed socially significant to the artist is highlighted in the foreground. Social stratifications within the light and shade.
Pyramidal composition
arranging the subject to form a pyramid. This depicts a solid stance, gives the notion of intelligence, stability and strength. Shown in history to illustrate ideologies and myths, sense of calm and dignity to project meaning.
Chain composition
Like links in a chain, the interlocking rhythms tie the key features together. The linking of the pictorial components occurs both two and three dimensionally.
Principle of parallels
Links between the flow of lines. Directional links, similarities and repetition within the composition.
Veduta compositions
Panorama – veduta or view is a highly detailed, usually large scale painting or print of a city scape or some other vista. Panoramic view,
Transitions in the Foote, cone and Belding grid.
Masculine and analytical mindset on the left
Feminine and emotional response on the right
Temporal or everyday concerns depicted on the bottom (pertained to or concerned with present life)
Spiritual responses are on the top of the composition.
Vignette
Process by which there is a loss in clarity towards the corners and sides of the image. the all important issue is to fade the image from a point of fixation and diminish the focal clarity. As the viewer’s eye strays away from the area of high focus and away into the background, the treatment of the surface details becomes progressively more about loosely laid strokes than with showing intimate details of the subject
Golden section
used in classical compositions, the key features are arranged on the two vertical and horizontal golden section divisions. It is closer to half way than it is 1/3 to 2/3. It is the point that lies on the part of the object at 1.618.
The Golden Section was used extensively by Leonardo Da Vinci. Note how all the key dimensions of the room and the table in Da Vinci’s “The Last Supper” were based on the Golden Ratio, which was known in the Renaissance period as The Divine Proportion.
Fibonacci spatial intervals
1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34 etc - originally used in the research of breeding rabbits, it has been adapted for use of spacing intervals like stepping stones from the foreground to the distance. Produces a harmonious gestalt composition that’s balanced and pleasing to the eye.
Negative and positive illusions – kanizsa triangle
Phenomenon where the brain can see borders even where no contrast exists. Illusory contours that fill in the missing lines according to design expectations held in memory from earlier viewed objects.
Negative and positive illusions – Sabatier border lines
Element of transparency, amounting to a rim lighting effect to render the outlines of silhouettes and objects. When an object is thick enough to prevent any significant light to pass through it within the centre, however, the edges are relatively thin and allow the light to be seen. This is frequently observed with clouds and solarisation, causing silver lining and rim light effect on clouds etc.
Can be digitally created by a partial reversal of the image, to create a transition across a composition by changing the lines from positive to negative. Or applying subtle changes to the phrasing of the lines.
Negative and positive illusions – becke lines
Scientific – microscopic crystals when analysed closely has an illuminated thin band that outlines the crystal, mimicking the Sabatier border line.
Refraction of light that borders particles, creates an optical halo perceived as the becke line.
Negative and positive illusions – reflections and refraction
Examples – creating illusions of white or black lines by bordering objects with the opposing or contrasting tone. (black line illusion can be created by carving white lines around it onto the black surface)
Glass of water - Light reflects on the opposite side, and you light the perimeter of the shadowed side of the liquid to show the water folding around the glass. When the light bounces through it reflects and lightens the middle of the shadow (antumbre)
Waves and ripples – the front of the wake is dark and the back of the wake is light to depict reflection and shallowness.
Transitions from positive to negative
Depicted often in foliage – the light foliage are negative shapes and the dark foliage are positive shapes.
White lines should be used on black background and black lines on white background, the transition of these lines should run smoothly across the composition, blending between the tonal contrasts of the negative and positive lines. Colours of objects in the foreground have lineal tone transtitions from positive and negative lines depending on the background. (white lines on shadowed area, blending into black on the lite area) still following in the western lighting convention.
the viewers focus into the centre of the image and subjec
Graphic representation of movement: placement of subject
This is the process of choosing a pose or position to express the maximum meaning and expose the maximum amount of energy from the subject. EG, with a golf swing, you wouldn’t draw the club in mid swing to portray energy. You would illustrate it at its highest point, when it has the most tension and generated energy just before the swing.
Or with a flying bird, to place the bird in the centre of the page wouldn’t generate much energy, you would need to position it high on the page to portray height and lift from the energy of the wings.
Graphic representation of movement: Poggendorff illustion
Is a straight overlaid shape that is critical to the Poggendorff illusion. Theoretically the simplification of the columns disrupts the viewer’s reading of the figures and, arguably, triggers the idea that the figures are animated.
Principle of contrasting mark attributes: constrained and free
Contrast between freely laid marks and marks that are tightly aligned.
Principle of contrasting mark attributes: foreground and background
Contrast between line thickness and sharpness in the foreground ands apposed to the sensitive marks of the background. Can be a contrast in the direction of mark making.
Foreground – multidirectional, longer, strong emphatic
Background –horizontal and vertical alignment of marks, shorter, more tentative and occasionally transparent.
Principle of contrasting mark attributes: dualities of meaning
Sharp with soft
Opaque with transparent
shiny with dull
Regid with flexible
Contrasting the lineal mark-making manner to convey a contrast of emotions. Accentuate the marks that portray the emotion that is to be the dominant feature of the picture.
Principle of anamorphic projection
This is about distorting an image so it is coherent from a certain perspective.
Forshortening – converting an image head on, by morphing and stretching to suit how the image was intended to be seen, (from the angle or perspective).
drawings are intended to fool the eye from the perspective Trompe-loeil.
analogues – a non representational pattern of lines matching what an experience ‘feels’ like.
Analogue structures in composition
Rather than distorting, it is about finding the natural occurrence of the analogue within the composition. Demonstrate the symbolic meaning within the structure.
Configure subject to analogue
Demonstrate the warped angular aspects of a figure to covey the notion intended. Distorting the subject to fit with the analogue.
Superimposition of analogue on subject
Rather than drawing the abstract analogue as the final layer of marks on the subject, it is about integrating the analogue within the underlying image. The skill is in marrying the two images so the analogue is concealed there and doesn’t look out of place.
Use of edge for figure and ground
Pentomento – the ability to see through the beginning layers. Makes the image ambiguous
Is a constant manipulation of edges to change what sits in front of what. this principle is used to achieve depth perception. Perceptual outcome is that the edge between the figure and ground only appears to be the boundary for one of them.
Principle for constructing shadows
Longer shadows tend to be lighter in colour and short shadows of the area closest to the object casting the shadow tend to be darker. Back edge of the shadow is more dissolved, to achieve the flatness.
Usually rendered with horizontal marks, but must have an element of marks flowing and in unison with the foundations of the ground the shadow is cast onto.
In accordance to colour theory, Shadows are the complimentary colour of the source casting them.
On a figure, the figures half tones are detailed, and because of a colour bias the bias is warmed into the light an cooled into the shadowed areas because of the consitstant local colour of the object.
Principle for constructing reflections
Reflections can only be of equal height to the object creating them.
Under water the reflection is reversed.
Consecutive vision
Everything has the same degree of focus.
Foreground and distance are either both blurred, or both in focus.
Rendering style should also be consistent through the composition.
Sfumato – this is an issue with consecutive vision.
When there are no harsh outlines present, ares blend into each other and provide a hazy uniform image which sometimes lacks emotion
Simultaneous (binocular) vision
Impressionist discovered the theory, vision with two eyes operating.
Vision experiences when looking through two eyes
Single point is in focus and the focal resolution gradually deteriorates leading away from the focal point. Rendering style should allow changes from fine to broad handling.
Monocular vision
Best demonstrated in photography.
Single plane parallel to the viewer is in focus and the focal clarity behind this plane is progressively lost.
Rendering style must allow for the variations in clarity.
Gestalt perception theory
The notion of reducing a subject to the essential details ensuring that the resulting image can project meaning.
Artist will choose to only portray the ‘points of fixation’ only.
Consistency of style: signature marks
The difference of the natural direction of mark making between a left and right-handed artist. No matter the subject, the style of drawing is consistent, signature style. It has been suggested to change hands, medium or tool to create eaze and a haptic variety in mark making.
Consistency of style: contour marks
Process of rendering in the direction of the subject, following the natural shape of the form with the contour marks used.
Consistency of style: mimetic marks
Mimicking the various surfaces that are being rendered. Marks depict the textual elements o the subject. Treatment of the different surfaces differ.
Consistency of style: marks signifying light and shade
Creating a contrast between light and shade
Light – fine and delicate positive lines. That are occasionally horizontal
Shadow – broad, crumbly negative lines that are occasionaly vertical
Consistency of style: marks signifying spatial depth
Foreground – multidirectional, longer, strong emphatic
Background –horizontal and vertical alignment of marks, shorter, more tentative and occasionally transparent.
Contrast to achieve a spatial hierarchy – mid area is just transitional – change in mark quality to connote depth.
Lighting a subject from the top-front-left because westerners scan images from left to right following the direction of which westerners read. Hebrew and Arabic artists reverse this convention due to their own natural reading culture. Oriental artists, as they are accustom to reading text in a vertical manner, give no meaning or importance to incorporate this convention, but enhance vertical lighting of their subjects and depict a virtual absence of side lighting in their art.
Tonal contrast principle
One of the many tools used to separate a subject from its background. Simultaneous contrast means subjects should appear to lighten by their contrast with a dark background. Opposing this, subjects will appear to darken by their contrast when sat against a lighter background. Exagerating the corners, makes a more convincing illustration, as well as adding flicks of white within the shadows and dark tones (flying whites) to enhance the depth of the dark spaces.
Exotopic and Endotopic tones.
rather that using a line to separate the key features from their immediate background, tonal contrasts are utilized to differentiate the subject from its background. These tonal contrasts gives pictorial unity, allowing the subjects to sit correctly in space, in harmonious contrast to the background.
Phrasing line, tone and texture to portray weight
weighting a line, involves a transition in a line from a pale tone where the line is further away from the ground to a dark tone where the line is closest to the ground. In short, the principle is all about the artist varying the degree of light and shade in a line—usually the outcome of changing the pressure on the drawing instrument—to connote the sensation of gravity.
Adjusting the thickness, depth and rendering styles of the line, tone and textural elements of the drawing to depict movement, heaviness and position in space.
To achieve this, the artist needs to emerse themselves into the situation of the subject, being in the situation will aid in creating the correct perspective and achieve the comfortable position in space. If an object is moving towards us, the edges would be blurred and the centre enhanced, when it is moving away, the edges are enhanced. applying the rules of perspective
Examples – clouds are made to look weighted using noetic space and tonal contrast principle.
Trees and their base are depicted to be glued to the ground by adding 3 accents to the trunk, this anchors the tree to the floor. A solid line would cut the subject rather than add weight. To achieve this with transparent objects, you would use occlusion shadows, the final accent of tone where the shadow meets the subject, and the lightest part will be the opposite side to where the light initially hit.
Ingres principle
This isn’t particularly a technical term, however is discusses the phrasing of line in relation to a curve and transitional changes throughout the form. If it is a narrow tight curve (eg, bone or hard edge) the line will be more pronounced to depict the angle of the contour. When the edge is soft (eg, large curve, thigh, ball) the line is applied delicately to portray the smooth elements of the subject. It is common sense and should be done haptically and non intentional. Varies according to the shapes of the subject. phrasing of a subject’s silhouette edge to replicate variations in the subject’s surface contours.
Phrasing of line without a beginning of end (lanceolate leaf shape)
Tapering the etching direction of lines to portray objects receding or advancing within the artwork.
the swelling (i.e. bulging outwards) of each line from a faint beginning and back to an equally faint ending like a lanceolate leaf shape (i.e. a shape that is pointed at each end)
The point of maximum swelling in the lines is assigned to where the weight is. this subtle phrasing is the “secret” to using the principle of weight in a line meaningfully.
Reflected light
A light ray that bounces off a reflective surface at the exact angle at which it contacted the surface. Use of reflected light gives forms to shadows. Without this light the dark areas would appear flat. Reflected light is a combination of the local color of the object sending the light, the object receiving the light and the quality and color of the source light and ambient light in the scene.
Noetic space
The term noetic describes our intellectual ability to rationalise. Noetic space in drawing is used to portray special separation between subject and background. Noetic space is the light area on the shadowed side of a subject. The use of noetic space gives an illusion of depth, along with the darkening the background of the light side of the subject, the sucject will take on a more realistic 3d appearance and sit harmoniously in space, connecting with the ground, background and surrounding setting.
Tonal perspective
Usually the forground is dark and the background is lighter to give spatial depth. Subjects sit in space harmoniously, because of the energy and emphasis on the line and tone on the forground, and subtle appearance of background marks. This encoporates the opacity and transparency perspective, the forground object is opaque. An opaque object is neither transparent (allowing all light to pass through) nor translucent (allowing some light to pass through). With regard to other artists’ approaches to representing spatial depth, the most common way is to conceive of space as having three critical and identifiable zones: foreground middle and, far-distance This approach makes the representation of space manageable. the sense that the spatial break-up into three zones presents the artist with only three critical stages of change in the transition from sharp focus in the foreground to atmospheric blurriness in the far-distance.
Negative and positive lines and textures
Refers to the tone contrast from mark to background. (black etching on white surface vs white lines on a black surface), transitions from one surface tone to another.
White drawing (negative object) on a black background, usually makes the space more ambiguous than if we were to draw black on white paper.
It was used a lot on scraper board prints, where artists would use a mimetic technique to replicate the textural elements of their subjects (eg clothing materials) by altering rendering styles to portray the particular surface.
Tonal transition from forground to distance
Usually dark in the foreground and light in the background.
To achieve spatial depth in the composition, there is a quick transition from light to dark zones so that a quick transition from dark to light tones can then be employed. To achieve the elements as a unified vision, the same or very similar degree of focal resolusion and tone should be treated to each layer of the art work. (similar tones for the back ground and then similar tones for all objects In the forground
Transition of tone and mark
The subtle mark direction change within a tonal transition. Manouvering marks and the direction of brush strokes to achieve the desired look. Shadows are horizontal, light is vertical.
Return stroke
Subtle effortless marks, creates an almost zig zag pattern. Was utilized in print making to give life to mechanical hatching, over time in the replicated prints, the returning marks wore off and a hook like mark was realized. Hook stroke was recognized as being just as effective to create life and weight to etching process.
Stippling
Dotted manner, the stippling technique enables an artist to achieve the most delicate graduations of tone and reproduce the subtle value of deisn to a subject.
Line and dot
This is process where a thicker line, gradually is phrased to a thin delicate mark, as the mark enters the lite part of the subject, it breaks down in to small dots which eventually separate further and disappear into a white lite area.
The dotted lozenge
a subtle device that adds texture, tapering towards the light creates luminosity in a more meticulous manner than just mark making.
where dots are placed in the middle of lozenge shaped spaces created by cross-hatching to further refine tonal shading.
Crosshatching
Layering of lines both vertical and horizontal on top of each other to portray depth and 3d effect in an art work. This is a fairly mechanical technique with the use of straight lines, artists then extended and progressed to marks such as the hook stroke to achieve a care fee haptic manner with their lines.
Rain drops
Engravers used only parallel lines to render tone, their stylus strokes were carved like pen on paper, this resulted in the marks aligning like falling rain. Straight up and down marks used as a rendering technique.
Striations
Lines and marks meshed together but arranged into rows. Use of this approach can give the appearance of complication to a subject but it has a shortfall in that the viewers may perceive the effect of striations to be a portrayal of a surface texture.
Digital tonal transitions
Achieveing rendering styles and mark making techniques using a digital device.
Tonal transitions in shadows
Penumbre – two sided shadows, achieveing illuminosity. Use a crisp line on the shadow and fade as the line distances from the subject.
Antumbre – illuminating the centre of a shadow.
Umbre – the shadow itself
Tone of the subject in one lighting condition changes in relationship to its surroundings at the same rate. This is called the lighting ratio.
Gradual softening of the outside edge of the shadow as they recede from the subject casting them.
Principles of convex and concave forms
Concaved surfaces are a shape that replicate the curve of a spoon, the outer edge is lighter and the tones become darker towards the centre. A concave reflective surface show imagery upside down.
Convex surfaces are shaped similar to the back of a spoon, warmer colours are used within in the centre to create the illusion of bulging. Darker tones on the outside and lighter in the middle also aids in the illusion of the form advancing from the page.
Reflections within a spherical form involves both convex and concave effects, light passes through the sphere and the light bounces on the shadow side (used when drawing grapes and eyes)
Advancing and receding shapes ; the analytical and intuitive eye
light passes through the sphere and the light bounces on the shadow side (used when drawing grapes and eyes), because the eye is spherical and translucent, the light reflects on the shadowed side
the left direction is the analytical side, to portray a cunning character you would play on this direction. And the right direction portrays a nice persons intuitive eye. A square highlight should be placed on the eye the artist wants the viewer to focus on
Colour perspective – principle of advancing and receding colour
This is in the context of what is stressful to the eye.
Tonal similarities = harmonious
Light and dark contrast = discord
Simple colour theory suggests Colours that are warm (i.e. colours like orange, red and all the browns that have associations with heat) should feature towards the foreground and the colours that are cool (i.e. colours like green and blue and all the aqua colours that have association with cold) should feature towards the background.” This will achieve pictorial depth within in image. Warm colours imply an object is advancing and cool colours help a subject recede into the background.
To make each colour looks like it belongs and contributes in a cohesive way to a unified overall image, artists often introduce an element of cool colour to a warm foreground and an element of warm colour to a cool background. This colour interaction—technically termed “simultaneous contrast”—at the line of abutment is a marvellous way to induce the viewer’s eye to optically see more colours in an image than are really there.
Also an important principle in making colours “sing” or “talk to each other” is the choice of colour placed in between.
Yellows and purples can both advance and recede depending on where they are placed against their surroundings. Eg a cool lemon yellow will tend to advance when juxtaposed against a red.
Chromatic perspective
Chroma is the amount of grey that is saturating a direct hue or colour from the spectrum.
Hue = a colour straight from the spectrum. Fully saturated lively colour, to add grey we are diluting the intensity adding grey to dull the hue.
Regarding chromatic perspective as a principle to achieve spatial depth.
Saturated colour are those of full strength, these advance and those that are chromatically degenerated recede.
Illuminous in the foreground and degenerated as it recedes to the background.
Regarding chromatic perspective as a principle to achieve spatial depth.
Colour bias in rendering light and shadow
by following the western convention of lighting from the top front left, the colour transition usually flows from warm of the left to cool on the right.
Simple terms… warm the colours in the lite areas and cool them in the shadowed areas.
Principle of colour in shadow
Within shadows, you need to replicate the warm vs cool tones within the figure, within the figure itself, warm colours can also be applies to the lite part of the figure, following the western lighting convention and cooled colours immersed within the shadowed part of the form.
The hue within the shadow should be the complimentary colour to the light that is casting on the form or object.
Opacity perspective
Opaque, unable to see through, vs transparent.
The process of merging from a vibrant opaque medium to a translucent texture to create special depth within an image.
A change in medium e.g oiled charcoal to willowed charcoal creates a natural contrast in opacity perspective.
Vignette – plays a part in opacity perspective, a process by which there is a loss in clarity towards the corners and sides of the image.
Principle of convex and concave lines
Holy = concave lines and forms are seen as being recessed into the ground (sunk into the ground)
Clover= convex forms and lines. The convex shapes of the figure makes it look like its in front of the ground.
Eg - When representing shallow water, artists use outward bulging curves like those of a clover leaf to depict the water’s edge. When representing deep water, they use inward arcing curves like those of a holly leaf to depict the water’s edge.
Principle of connoting open and closed space
If the start or finish of a mark if flicked back towards the stem of the line a closed space Is created.
Evident in calligraphy – a good piece should feel contained, the lines flick and continue in the direction to lead the eye to the next line.
Lines should follow the natural movement of the brush, unintentional marks created with energy.
A strong use of connecting marks without having to join the lines. Lines should not all point in uniform, lack of energy and connecting lines.
Haptic approach to drawing
Haptic approach is almost feeling a form as if you were blind. Conveys a sense onto the paper, scratching into space, feeling the form not drawing from proportions but from perspective.
Often drawing without looking at the page depicts a a great haptic approach, it creates a connection between the eyes and the hand.
Principle of overlapping forms
Using an example of drawing a back, not just drawing a flat back to achieve convex lines. Focusing on the analytical curves of the back, and adding endotopic tone to the inside of the line on the dark side to achieve shadow.
Posterisation
Blocking in – is the term used for the approach of posterisation. Process of reducing the image down to the fundamentals. It is important to keep an element of visual democracy within the picture, gestalt – where nothing overpowers, no part if more important than the whole picture.
Showing the simplistic tones on a figure. Accentuating the difference between the tones and the point of intersection is where you play up the tonal contrasts and keep the rest of the figure simple. A contrasting two tone effect. The background tones can also be enhanced to communicate with the subjects. Including flying whites will heighten the dark shadows.
Exotopic and endotopic tones
On the lite side, the exotopic tone is present on the background and meets the line of the figure. The shadowed side of the figure, had a light and limited background. The endotopic tone is present on the inside of the figure, paired with flying whites it gives the illusion of shadow casted onto the figure. These tonal contrasts allow the subject to sit correctly in space in harmonious contrast to the background.
Ingres principle
the Ingres principle, concerns the phrasing of a subject’s silhouette edge to replicate variations in the subject’s surface contours. For example, if an artist were to apply this principle to portraying a figure’s arm then the sharply angled contours of an elbow may lead the artist to treat the silhouette edge of the elbow with a strong line by comparison with a much softer line where the contours of the arm change to the rounded muscles of the upper arm.
Phrasing the lines so they appear hard and sharp of the more angular edges and thin and flowing on the softer lines of a subject.
Principle of weighting a line
Thickening the phrasing of the line to depict where the weight is within the composition. Following the weighting principle, and western lighting convention, lighting from the top front left, the simple lineal depiction of the character, should have bold lineal phrasing on the bottom sides, to not only depict weight but show the shadowed side of the figure.
Simplification to essential lines
Using a minimal number of lines to convey a subjects stance on paper. Double lines can be added to depict the weighting effect on the subject when using the simplification of essential lines.
Parallel scribble gesture
Haptic style of composing the subject onto paper, it is finding an angle and then establishing where the same angle is repeated within the composition. When introducing an angle in the form, there is always the same tension echoed else where. Haptically feeling the subject means avoiding mechanical lines, darkening lines, areas and angles demonstrates the weight and tension in the composition as well as showing the replicated angles. Composition needs to be clear and easy to understand veen with the simplicity of the drawing.
Proportions
Proportions are generalised. Each person is different.
7-8 heads tall.
Eye is half way
Nose is 1/3 down from the eyes and 2/3 up from the chin
There is space for an eye in between the eyes and should fit a half eye either side.
Centre of the pupils should level with the edges of the mouth.
Ear to eye to mouth should usually be an equal atrial triangle.
Avoid using lines that lead to or from corners
Leads the viewer out of the composition, a good picture needs to encourage the viewer into the centre of the picture. It interrupts the flow, if lines need to be lead into the corner, an object needs to be placed in its way to interrupt the flow.
Avoid employing lines that cut off corners
Cutting off the corner can be addressed if the form that is cropping the corner has a element of transparency to it and we can see a form or lineal composition evident through it.
Avoid cropping a subject on a point of articulation
Point of articulation are joints, for example cutting a subject off at the elbow. It needs to be cut off at the golden section of a subject.
Avoid using lines that create tangents
This is where the focus subject of the image is close to the edge but doesn’t connect to the edge of the composition. By lightly connecting or lightly touching the edge of the composition , even by applying a vignette effect, the picture becomes more appealing to the viewer.
Avoid employing uninterrupted lines
A division does not integrate fluently within the composition, splits the artwork in half and divides it into two separate pieces.
A separation can work well if when referencing between stillness and movement.
Avoid creating ‘ floating ‘ compositions
There is a lack of a relationship between the frame and the subject, the object does not sit harmoniously in space and the peripheral edge is now irrelevant.
Avoid employing multiple centres of interest
The eye is drawn to multiple sections, the composition needs to have a hierarchy, with the eye unsure where to look, there is no balance within the pictorial democracy. All elements are struggling to become the dominant form.
Avoid placing verticals on the left and horizontals on the right
Similar to how we read the western lighting convention, we read into the composition in from the left. We need horizontals on the left to guide the eye into the picture and add horizontals further into the piece to stop the flow. To introduce vertical lines on the left side, obstructs the composition and restricts the flow of the composition because of our natural western reading culture.
Avoid distributing features evenly
When the subjects are evenly distributed and centered, its makes the composition very uninteresting. By introducing a phrased line into the picture, it can be separated and space is conveyed in the configuration.
Avoid creating an unbalanced composition
Top, bottom or one sided heaviness to the art work. For example when a subject is looking out of the composition, a mirrored suspicion of what the subject is looking at would balance the work.
Avoid employing an even number of subjects
There needs to be an uneven number of subjects for there to be a hierarchy within the composition to achieve an emotion. You cannot achieve neither a gestalt effect or visual democracy with an even number of forms.
Classical u shaped composition
Historically this was a male dominated vision as there were lack of recognised female artists. Composition demonstrates lack of peripheral vision, focus is in front of the artist, usually looking through a gap framed by the u shaped foreground. Takes into account culture and perception of the artist, with the subjects deemed socially significant to the artist is highlighted in the foreground. Social stratifications within the light and shade.
Pyramidal composition
arranging the subject to form a pyramid. This depicts a solid stance, gives the notion of intelligence, stability and strength. Shown in history to illustrate ideologies and myths, sense of calm and dignity to project meaning.
Chain composition
Like links in a chain, the interlocking rhythms tie the key features together. The linking of the pictorial components occurs both two and three dimensionally.
Principle of parallels
Links between the flow of lines. Directional links, similarities and repetition within the composition.
Veduta compositions
Panorama – veduta or view is a highly detailed, usually large scale painting or print of a city scape or some other vista. Panoramic view,
Transitions in the Foote, cone and Belding grid.
Masculine and analytical mindset on the left
Feminine and emotional response on the right
Temporal or everyday concerns depicted on the bottom (pertained to or concerned with present life)
Spiritual responses are on the top of the composition.
Vignette
Process by which there is a loss in clarity towards the corners and sides of the image. the all important issue is to fade the image from a point of fixation and diminish the focal clarity. As the viewer’s eye strays away from the area of high focus and away into the background, the treatment of the surface details becomes progressively more about loosely laid strokes than with showing intimate details of the subject
Golden section
used in classical compositions, the key features are arranged on the two vertical and horizontal golden section divisions. It is closer to half way than it is 1/3 to 2/3. It is the point that lies on the part of the object at 1.618.
The Golden Section was used extensively by Leonardo Da Vinci. Note how all the key dimensions of the room and the table in Da Vinci’s “The Last Supper” were based on the Golden Ratio, which was known in the Renaissance period as The Divine Proportion.
Fibonacci spatial intervals
1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34 etc - originally used in the research of breeding rabbits, it has been adapted for use of spacing intervals like stepping stones from the foreground to the distance. Produces a harmonious gestalt composition that’s balanced and pleasing to the eye.
Negative and positive illusions – kanizsa triangle
Phenomenon where the brain can see borders even where no contrast exists. Illusory contours that fill in the missing lines according to design expectations held in memory from earlier viewed objects.
Negative and positive illusions – Sabatier border lines
Element of transparency, amounting to a rim lighting effect to render the outlines of silhouettes and objects. When an object is thick enough to prevent any significant light to pass through it within the centre, however, the edges are relatively thin and allow the light to be seen. This is frequently observed with clouds and solarisation, causing silver lining and rim light effect on clouds etc.
Can be digitally created by a partial reversal of the image, to create a transition across a composition by changing the lines from positive to negative. Or applying subtle changes to the phrasing of the lines.
Negative and positive illusions – becke lines
Scientific – microscopic crystals when analysed closely has an illuminated thin band that outlines the crystal, mimicking the Sabatier border line.
Refraction of light that borders particles, creates an optical halo perceived as the becke line.
Negative and positive illusions – reflections and refraction
Examples – creating illusions of white or black lines by bordering objects with the opposing or contrasting tone. (black line illusion can be created by carving white lines around it onto the black surface)
Glass of water - Light reflects on the opposite side, and you light the perimeter of the shadowed side of the liquid to show the water folding around the glass. When the light bounces through it reflects and lightens the middle of the shadow (antumbre)
Waves and ripples – the front of the wake is dark and the back of the wake is light to depict reflection and shallowness.
Transitions from positive to negative
Depicted often in foliage – the light foliage are negative shapes and the dark foliage are positive shapes.
White lines should be used on black background and black lines on white background, the transition of these lines should run smoothly across the composition, blending between the tonal contrasts of the negative and positive lines. Colours of objects in the foreground have lineal tone transtitions from positive and negative lines depending on the background. (white lines on shadowed area, blending into black on the lite area) still following in the western lighting convention.
the viewers focus into the centre of the image and subjec
Graphic representation of movement: placement of subject
This is the process of choosing a pose or position to express the maximum meaning and expose the maximum amount of energy from the subject. EG, with a golf swing, you wouldn’t draw the club in mid swing to portray energy. You would illustrate it at its highest point, when it has the most tension and generated energy just before the swing.
Or with a flying bird, to place the bird in the centre of the page wouldn’t generate much energy, you would need to position it high on the page to portray height and lift from the energy of the wings.
Graphic representation of movement: Poggendorff illustion
Is a straight overlaid shape that is critical to the Poggendorff illusion. Theoretically the simplification of the columns disrupts the viewer’s reading of the figures and, arguably, triggers the idea that the figures are animated.
Principle of contrasting mark attributes: constrained and free
Contrast between freely laid marks and marks that are tightly aligned.
Principle of contrasting mark attributes: foreground and background
Contrast between line thickness and sharpness in the foreground ands apposed to the sensitive marks of the background. Can be a contrast in the direction of mark making.
Foreground – multidirectional, longer, strong emphatic
Background –horizontal and vertical alignment of marks, shorter, more tentative and occasionally transparent.
Principle of contrasting mark attributes: dualities of meaning
Sharp with soft
Opaque with transparent
shiny with dull
Regid with flexible
Contrasting the lineal mark-making manner to convey a contrast of emotions. Accentuate the marks that portray the emotion that is to be the dominant feature of the picture.
Principle of anamorphic projection
This is about distorting an image so it is coherent from a certain perspective.
Forshortening – converting an image head on, by morphing and stretching to suit how the image was intended to be seen, (from the angle or perspective).
drawings are intended to fool the eye from the perspective Trompe-loeil.
analogues – a non representational pattern of lines matching what an experience ‘feels’ like.
Analogue structures in composition
Rather than distorting, it is about finding the natural occurrence of the analogue within the composition. Demonstrate the symbolic meaning within the structure.
Configure subject to analogue
Demonstrate the warped angular aspects of a figure to covey the notion intended. Distorting the subject to fit with the analogue.
Superimposition of analogue on subject
Rather than drawing the abstract analogue as the final layer of marks on the subject, it is about integrating the analogue within the underlying image. The skill is in marrying the two images so the analogue is concealed there and doesn’t look out of place.
Use of edge for figure and ground
Pentomento – the ability to see through the beginning layers. Makes the image ambiguous
Is a constant manipulation of edges to change what sits in front of what. this principle is used to achieve depth perception. Perceptual outcome is that the edge between the figure and ground only appears to be the boundary for one of them.
Principle for constructing shadows
Longer shadows tend to be lighter in colour and short shadows of the area closest to the object casting the shadow tend to be darker. Back edge of the shadow is more dissolved, to achieve the flatness.
Usually rendered with horizontal marks, but must have an element of marks flowing and in unison with the foundations of the ground the shadow is cast onto.
In accordance to colour theory, Shadows are the complimentary colour of the source casting them.
On a figure, the figures half tones are detailed, and because of a colour bias the bias is warmed into the light an cooled into the shadowed areas because of the consitstant local colour of the object.
Principle for constructing reflections
Reflections can only be of equal height to the object creating them.
Under water the reflection is reversed.
Consecutive vision
Everything has the same degree of focus.
Foreground and distance are either both blurred, or both in focus.
Rendering style should also be consistent through the composition.
Sfumato – this is an issue with consecutive vision.
When there are no harsh outlines present, ares blend into each other and provide a hazy uniform image which sometimes lacks emotion
Simultaneous (binocular) vision
Impressionist discovered the theory, vision with two eyes operating.
Vision experiences when looking through two eyes
Single point is in focus and the focal resolution gradually deteriorates leading away from the focal point. Rendering style should allow changes from fine to broad handling.
Monocular vision
Best demonstrated in photography.
Single plane parallel to the viewer is in focus and the focal clarity behind this plane is progressively lost.
Rendering style must allow for the variations in clarity.
Gestalt perception theory
The notion of reducing a subject to the essential details ensuring that the resulting image can project meaning.
Artist will choose to only portray the ‘points of fixation’ only.
Consistency of style: signature marks
The difference of the natural direction of mark making between a left and right-handed artist. No matter the subject, the style of drawing is consistent, signature style. It has been suggested to change hands, medium or tool to create eaze and a haptic variety in mark making.
Consistency of style: contour marks
Process of rendering in the direction of the subject, following the natural shape of the form with the contour marks used.
Consistency of style: mimetic marks
Mimicking the various surfaces that are being rendered. Marks depict the textual elements o the subject. Treatment of the different surfaces differ.
Consistency of style: marks signifying light and shade
Creating a contrast between light and shade
Light – fine and delicate positive lines. That are occasionally horizontal
Shadow – broad, crumbly negative lines that are occasionaly vertical
Consistency of style: marks signifying spatial depth
Foreground – multidirectional, longer, strong emphatic
Background –horizontal and vertical alignment of marks, shorter, more tentative and occasionally transparent.
Contrast to achieve a spatial hierarchy – mid area is just transitional – change in mark quality to connote depth.